莫里斯·阿莱斯(市场理论和最大效率理论的杰出贡献者)
莫里斯·阿莱斯,1911年5月31日生于法国巴黎,1931年进入巴黎工学院。1933年,阿莱以全班第一名的成绩毕业于巴黎工学院。之后进入巴黎国家高级矿业学院学习工程学,并于1937年在国家矿产与采矿部开始了他的工程师生涯。
人物简介
姓名:莫里斯·阿莱斯
性别:男
出生年月:1911年生
籍贯:法国
第二十届获奖者莫里斯·阿莱——市场理论和最大效率理论的杰出贡献者
人物经历
在学生时代,莫里斯·阿莱经历了1929~1933年的世界经济危机和接踵而来的经济萧条时期。基于对1929年大危机造成社会大灾难的愤怒和解决社会经济问题的热情,他立志为市场经济中出现的若干问题找到解决办法,并贡献自己毕生的精力。由于具有工程学的背景,阿莱自学了经济学,并把数学的严密性引进到当时几乎没有定量分析的法国经济学派中。
大学毕业后,莫里斯·阿莱当上了矿业工程师。他决定发挥自己所学之专长,先从矿业角度搞微观经济分析,然后逐步扩大自己的经济研究领域。1943年,莫里斯·阿莱出版了第一部经济学专著《微观经济学研究》(两卷),初步展示了他杰出的研究才能。1944年,莫里斯·阿莱才33岁,便成了巴黎国家高级矿业学院矿业经济分析的著名教授,并担任法国经济与社会研究中心主任。接着,莫里斯·阿莱在学术界的地位蒸蒸日上,担任的职务越来越多且越重要:1946年任巴黎国家高级矿业学院院长和法国全国科学研究中心经济分析中心主任;1947年任巴黎大学统计研究所理论经济学教授;1954年任法国全国科学研究中心主管研究工作的主任;1958~1959年任弗吉尼亚大学经济学客座教授;1967~1970年,他是瑞士日内瓦国际问题研究生院的教授;自1970年后,他担任了巴黎大学克莱芒-朱格拉高级货币分析研究室主任。阿莱曾服兵役一年。退伍以后,1940年7月他回到南茨仍然做矿业机关的负责人。1943年1月至1948年4月,他成为巴黎的矿业文献和统计局局长。
莫里斯·阿莱毕生致力于市场经济的潜心研究和经济学的教学工作。他在巴黎第十大学金融分析中心从事研究工作直至1980年退休。退休后,他一直坚持经济学的教学工作。1988年获得诺贝尔经济学奖时,他虽已77岁,但身体健康,精力充沛,仍在巴黎国家高级矿业学院讲授《金融行情分析基础理论》。
阿莱“因为市场理论和最大效率理论方面”对经济学所做出的贡献,获得1988年诺贝尔经济学奖。他是第一个获诺贝尔经济学奖的法国学者。
主要学术观点
阿莱提出了许多市场经济模型,重新系统地阐述了一般经济均衡理论和最大效用理论。阿莱认为,从瓦尔拉斯到德布鲁的一般均衡模型均假定一个所有物品都集中在一起进行交换的市场,而且市场价格对所有市场参加者都是共同的、给定的,然后通过惟一的一轮交易做一次性移动,经济从不均衡状态过渡到均衡状态。这些假定都是不现实的,他称之为“单市场经济模型”。针对这些缺陷,他提出“多市场经济模型”,它假定导向均衡的交换以不同的价格连续发生,并且在任何给定时点上,不同经营者作用的价格不必是同一的,在“可分配剩余”的驱动下,每一次交易都趋近均衡。
阿莱的“多市场模型”较之于“单市场经济模型”更接近现实,更一般化,不仅涵蕴了存在竞争和不存在竞争的所有可能的市场形态,也能像描述西方国家经济那样描述东方国家经济和发展中国家的经济,而且其描述是动态的。由于阿莱把私人分散的、自由寻求和实现剩余看做是实现最大效率状态的基本途径,因此在政策主张上极力反对凯恩斯主义的政府干预。
阿莱悖论
经济学,尤其是作基础理论的微观经济学,按马歇尔的定义,应该解释人们的经济行为。但在经典的理论中,却无法说明如下的现象:为什么人们会不辞辛苦,跑到一家僻远的小杂铺店里,在一件价码很小的货物上为省几块钱而锱铢必争,但对距离同样远的一家超市提供的金额相同的几元钱的打折却无动于衷?为什么人们在买保险时,会买价格较贵的小额保险,而不太愿买价格较便宜的大额保单?为什么在股市上,投资者会对短线的利好消息反应过度,从而导致股价的过度敏感?
这一系列现象都涉及人们的基本行为,尤其是面临风险时人们决策的基本行为。传统的经济学基于冯·诺伊曼和摩根斯坦1944年的理论,认为人们在面临风险时是追求期望效用极大化的。这常被用来解释人们在股市上对不同股票或不同投资机会的选择。
但早在二十世纪五十年代,阿莱就通过一系列可控实验,提出了著名的“阿莱悖论”,对期望效用理论构成了挑战。举个例子,若有两个投资机会A与B:A会稳赢3000元;机会B会以80%概率获4000元,20%概率得零。大多数人会选A。但再考虑投资机会C与D,C会以20%的概率获4000元,80%的概率得零,而D会以25%的概率得3000元,75%的概率得零,这时,上述在A与B中偏好A的大多数人又会选C。但是,其实,机会D只是0.25×A,而机会C也只是0.25×B,显然,人们在A、B之间的选择与在C、D之间的选择了发生了不一致。这就叫阿莱悖论。由于阿莱提出这一悖论以及与该悖论相关的对人类选择行为的一系列研究,而获得了1988年的诺贝尔经济学奖,然而,经济学家们,包括阿莱本人,并没有对这个悖论给出合理的令人信服的解释。直到1979年卡尼曼和特韦尔斯基才在《计量经济学》杂志上发表了“前景理论”一文试图给予解释,并因此而获得2002年的诺贝尔经济学奖。
警示于世界金融市场
阿莱把世界金融体系的发展说成是“发疯”,他认为如今的世界经济已成为赌场,在这个赌场中,世界外汇市场每天成交2万亿美元,但真正与生产相关的不到3%,另外的97%则与投机活动有关。而造就这种“虚拟性”金融资产的无限膨胀,是金融市场的畸形发展,特别是金融衍生工具的不断出现和它的市场作用引致的。其中金融期货起了重要的推波助澜的作用。1848年,由82位商人发起组建了芝加哥期货交易所,是世界上第一家商品期货交易所。世界金融期货的出现则比商品期货晚了100多年。1972年5月,美国国际货币市场首先推出了外汇期货,此后,利率期货、股票指数期货等金融期货品种相继问世。在二十世纪八十年代,世界金融市场上每天只有1000多亿美元的交易量,到如今则猛增了10多倍,自然是金融期货的魔力使然。金融期货及金融衍生工具的出现,本来是旨在通过套期保值而减少外汇及金融风险,但由于它们与现货市场的密切关系及其特殊的游戏规则,结果成为投机者利用风险,操纵市场,从而获取超额利润的杠杆和工具。这种游戏规则使那些不是把它们作为套期保值、对冲风险的手段,而是用于套取暴利的投机者能够轻易垄断市场,能够通过保证金杠杆巨额持仓,从而左右大市升落,使市场流动性风险、信用风险以及市场监管的复杂性和难度无限增大。此外,包括远期交易、掉期交易和衍生工具交易在内的期货交易,在资产负债表中是无从体现的,其交易并不影响机构本身的资产负债结构,却在银行账户上不断进行价值重估,创造虚拟资本,从而形成一种金融泡沫大起大落的恶性循环。当然这种游戏规则最大的问题还在于它确立了投机者的合法性,到头来投机者们代表着市场,代表着国际资金,市场管理者理所当然要给予他们以天然的“自由度”。
1993年年底,阿莱在“费加罗报”发表了一系列文章,在这些文章中他批评了国际货币基金组织、世界银行和欧洲共同体关于世界贸易自由化的政策。例如,他尖锐地批评在世界银行、欧洲共同体研究中使用的所谓“乡村/城市——北方/南方模型”(RUNS)的经济模型。阿莱指出了世界银行方法论的基本错误。他指出,RUNS模型和基于这个模型的研究,在科学上是不合格的。他在结论中说:“世界银行关于世界经济收获很大的预测,是为给政治政策施加影响。伪科学的面具,只能愚弄幼稚无知的人。根据这样的结论做出代表世界千百万人民意见的决策,岂不是可笑。世界银行的报告,使人迷惑不解,它只为头脑简单的教条主义和无控制的自由贸易思想所欢迎”。
改革国际货币体系
巨额的国际资本流动容易造成发展中国家的经济泡沫,使IMF和世界银行等国际金融机构对成员国经济发展进行指导和提供咨询的专业能力受到考验。在金融全球化和金融自由化的过程中,一些国家盲目开放资本账户。由于国内资本的相对短缺和金融管制、利率水平较高,一些外资尤其是一些投机性短期资本蜂拥而至。另一方面,由于国外利率低,银行、企业便大量借入外资,甚至是短期资本,然后投入房地产、股票市场,引起房地产和股票价格暴涨,形成虚假繁荣。虚假繁荣的结果是严重误导一国的财政货币政策,也严重误导了IMF和世界银行等国际金融机构的决策,为危机埋下祸根。因而,IMF的改革势在必行。
鉴于IMF改革势在必行,一些国家的政府首脑财经官员、金融专家纷纷发表自己对改革国际货币体系的看法或抛出自己的改革方案。其中阿莱的方案包括7个要点:完全放弃浮动汇率制,代之以可调整的固定汇率制;实行可确保国际收支平衡的汇率制;禁止货币竞相贬值的做法;在国际上完全放弃以美元为货币、汇兑货币和储备货币的记账单位;将WTO和IMF合并为一个组织,成立地区性组织;禁止各大银行为了自己的利益在外汇、股票和衍生产品方面从事投机活动;通过适当的指数化在国际上逐步实行共同的记账单位。
主要贡献
莫里斯·阿莱在其早期的著作中做出了许多重要的贡献,它们对如今的一般经济理论具有很大的影响。作为这类贡献之一,阿莱比前人的分析更加严谨。他论述到,当社会上没有人能变得更好,也没有人变得更坏时,市场的均衡就是有效率的。而且,当初始资源再分配以后,任何社会上有效率的解都能通过市场均衡来实现。
阿莱的另一贡献是,在其一般均衡理论模型中引入了规模报酬因素——或者称之为基础设施投资。他还提供了一种形式,可以用于研究一个时间段的经济,并把资本和投资理论与一般均衡理论结合起来。
——1988年瑞典皇家科学院贺辞
主要著作
莫里斯·阿莱一生著述颇多,除获得1988年第20届诺贝尔经济学奖的代表作《市场规律研究》和《经济与利息》(1947)外,还有:
《微观经济学研究》(1943);
《欧洲一体化:通向富裕之路》(1959);
《资本税与货币改革》(1977);
《预期效用假设与阿莱悖论:关于不确定性条件下合理决策的讲座及阿莱的答辩》(1979,与哈根合著);
《资本在经济发展中的作用》(1965);
《增长与通货膨胀》(1969);
《一般经济均衡理论与最大效益:当前的困境与新的展望》(1971);
《健忘与兴趣》(1972)和《市场经济的货币条件》(1987)等。 [ENGLISH]
KUNGL. VETENSKAPSAKADEMIEN THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the 1988 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences to Professor Maurice Allais, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, France,for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources.
One of the principal tasks of basic research in economics is to formulate a rigorous model of equilibrium in markets and examine the efficiency of this equilibrium. The problem dates back to Adam Smith and his theory of the "invisible hand" which coordinates - to all appearances - a chaotic structure comprised of a multitude of independent and individual decisions based on self-interest. Paradoxically, this chaos gives rise to coordinated equilibria based on market prices. Firms' production decisions will correspond to consumers' planned consumption.
Adam Smith formulated his theory in the verbal and somewhat expository manner that was common in the social sciences during the latter part of the 18th century. About a hundred years later, other scholars tried to reformulate Smith's basic problems in mathematical terms. As a result, modern price theory as it emerged in the late 19th century, differed radically from previous conceptions of "just" prices or prices based exclusively on production costs for labor.
The missing link in the development of a more rigorous theory was provided in the 1870s by the French economist Léon Walras. He formulated his model ot the economic system as a large system of equations which described individuals' demand for goods and services and their supply of labor and other productive input along with firms' supply of goods and their demand for various factors of production. A set of prices which gave rise to equilibrium between supply and demand could, in fact, be regarded as a solution to this extremely large and complex system of equations. Later on, Walras's model was developed further by, among others, the Italian economist and sociologist Vilfredo Pareto. The Swedish economist Gustav Cassel formulated a somewhat simplified version which had a significant impact internationally.
The foremost contribution of Maurice Allais was made in the 1940s when he continued to develop Walras's and Pareto's work by providing increasingly rigorous mathematical formulations of market equilibrium and the efficiency properties of markets. On the basis of mathematical models of households' and firms' planning and choice, he introduced a very general formulation of the conditions for market equilibrium. Allais's two pioneering works are A la Recherche d'une Discipline Economique, published during the war in 1943, and Economie et Interet, 1947. A second edition of the first book appeared in 1952 as Traite d'Economie Pure. Each of these studies was extensive; the first comprised about 900 pages and the second approximately 800.
Traite d'Economie Pure contains a general and rigorous formulation of the two basic propositions of welfare theory. An economic situation with equilibrium prices is socially efficient in the sense that no one can become better off without someone else becoming worse off. In addition, under certain reasonable conditions, each such socially efficient situation can be achieved through redistribution of initial resources and a system of equilibrium prices. These propositions are important not only as results of basic research, but also as guidelines for planning in e.g., the public sector by means of prices (instead of direct regulation). Allais also formulated a generalization which covers the case where various kinds of returns to scale may give rise to natural monopolies. Through his analysis of market equilibrium and social efficiency, Allais laid the foundations for the school of postwar French economists who not only analyzed the conditions for efficient use of resources in large public monopolies (such as Electricité de France or SNCF, the state-owned railroad), but also in many instances applied the theory to business management.
Allais's two monumental works also contain many results which represent very early contributions in areas that were not explored until much later on. He used new mathematical methods to analyze the stability of equilibria, i.e., the conditions under which an economy - after a disturbance - will return to equilibrium through price formation. In his 1948 study, Allais anticipated important results in research which led to the modern theory of economic growth in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Allais's distinguished contribution may, to some extent, be regarded as a parallel to two important works published around the same time in the Anglo-Saxon research community: Value and Capital (1939) by Sir John Hicks, and Foundations of Economic Analvsis (1947) by Paul A. Samuelson. Hicks was awarded the Nobel memorial prize in economic sciences in 1972 and Samuelson in 1970. The similarity lies primarily in the objective of providing a comprehensive and rigorous interpretation of economic theory. The main difference is perhaps that Allais's formulation is more general and includes an analysis of, e.g. households' and firms' long-run (or intertemporal) planning. The work of Allais served as a basis for the analysis of market equilibrium and social efficiency using more advanced mathematical methods carried out by his pupil, Gerard Debreu (laureate in 1983), concurrently, and sometimes in collaboration with, Kenneth Arrow (laureate in 1972).
Allais's outstanding achievements may be characterized as basic research in economics. By his links to an older French tradition in economic research, Maurice Allais is the most prominent figure in modern economic research in France as regards basic theory and applications to public-sector planning. Even though his fundamental research has been relatively little known beyond the French-speaking sphere, Allais has had a far-reaching indirect impact through younger French economists who have been strongly influenced by his work.
Maurice Allais has also made distinguished, pioneering and often highly original contributions in other areas of economic research. At an early stage, he carried out theoretical and empirical studies on the significance and determinants of the volume of money. He was thus an initiator of monetary macrodynamic analyses. Outside of a rather small circle of economists, he is perhaps best known for his studies of risk theory and the so-called Allais paradox. He has shown that the theory of maximization of expected utility, which has been accepted for more than forty years, does not apply to many empirically realistic decisions under risk and uncertainty.
During the past two decades, Allais has tried to generalize market theory by emphasizing its dynamic aspects. The impetus for consumers' and producers' economic behavior consists of efforts to use any surpluses that may arise in an economy through previously unexploited exchange opportunities. Equilibrium is reached when these surpluses have been exhausted. Allais summarized many of his early and more recent research contributions in La Theorie Générale des Surplus (1981).
The sum ot Allais's productive achievements in economic theory is considerable. Moreover, he has carried out various applied studies in, e.g., operations research and has participated extensively in debates in the French press. Alongside his accomplishments as an economist, Allais has published studies in history and physics, particularly geophysics.
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